Study Notes on Development and International Communication

 

Development and International Communication 

 Development

1.     Concept, Definition of Development

Development Meaning

At the outset it is necessary to introduce the concept of development. Traditionally, economics had focused on increase in income as the main source of well being of individuals and hence the sole index of development. This continued till the 1980’s, when Amartya Sen showed us that there are a wide range of deprivations of individuals and hence of nations in health, education and living standards, which cannot be captured by income alone.

Prof. Amartya Sen has pointed out that there cannot be any doubt, given other things, an increase in the supply of food, clothing, housing, medical services, betterment of educational facilities etc make a contribution to the well-being of the people. It was therefore quite natural that the early writings on Development, when it emerged as a subject after the World War II, concentrated to a great extent on the ways of achieving an increase in income and employment.

This brings us to the distinction between economic growth and economic development. The increase in income, mostly measured by an increase in gross national product (GNP) of a country falls within the domain of economic growth.

GNP is an estimate of the total value of all the final products and services produced in a given period of time by the means of production owned by a country’s residents. GNP (normally denoted by Y) is commonly calculated by summing up the personal consumption expenditure (C), private domestic Investment (I), Government Expenditure (G), Net Exports (Exports minus Imports or X-M) and Net Earnings from Abroad (Earnings from Overseas economic activities by Indians minus Income Earned within the Domestic Economy by Foreign Residents or F). This can be denoted by a simple equation:

Y= C+I+G+(X-M)+F

GNP and GDP both reflect the national income of an economy. The main difference is that GNP (Gross National Product) takes into account net income receipts from abroad.

·       GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is a measure of National Income (i.e., the identity national income = national output = national expenditure produced in a particular country.

·       GNP = GDP + net income from abroad. This net income from abroad includes dividends, interest and profit.

·       GNP includes the value of all goods and services produced by nationals – whether in the country or not.

 

 

GNP of a country is a criterion for quantifying economic growth. The process of economic development cannot ignore the increase in food, clothing and so on. But there are many other variables that influence living conditions of the people, expand their life expectancy and overall well-being. These other variables bring us into the wider arena of development, which among other things is concerned about the distribution of these improvements in the society, not just their simple quantification or measurement. That is the reason why development consists of more than just improvements in the well-being of the citizens, but conveys something about the capacity of economic, political and social systems to

facilitate the sustainability of such well-being on a long term basis. Sen’s view is that development must be judged by its impact on people, not only by changes in their incomes, but more generally in terms of their choices, capabilities and freedoms to achieve their goals or ends. Here Sen points out that even when difficulties in distribution and other problems are overcome, development has to be measured by the actual achievements themselves, and not just by a quantification of the means of such achievement.

Concept of Development

Development is about respecting very fundamental human values and finding the means to extend the fruits of these values to the greatest majority of the world population. According to Prof. James M. Cypher, these human values include:

·       The opportunity for meaningful employment, under honorable conditions, and the possibility to provide for one’s self and family;

·       Employment under conditions that comply with the following four core labour standards of the International Labour Organization (ILO): (1) freedom of association and the effective recognition of the right to collective bargaining, that is the right to form trade unions; (2) elimination of all forms of forced or compulsory labor; (3) effective abolition of child labor; (4) elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation;

·       Sufficient food, shelter, and other amenities for a decent and meaningful life above the poverty line;

·       The opportunity to pursue education of one’s own choice and the increased quality of life it promises;

·       A reasonable level of health care;

·       Social security for old age;

·       Democracy and political participation in the life of the community and society;

·       Equal treatment under the law and in the economy, regardless of race, gender, class, ethnicity, religion, nationality, or other differences; and

·       Respect for individual dignity.

In a nutshell, however, the need for development is summarized by Amartya Sen. According to Amartya Sen, economic development is needed mainly for two reasons:

(1)  The removal of poverty through enhancement of human capabilities

(2)  Enjoyment of freedoms.

For the removal of poverty, capabilities of the poor should be enhanced so that they should be able to meet their minimum basic needs which include getting adequate food, clothing and shelter, health and education. Therefore, for removal of poverty, direct anti-poverty measures such as generation of enough employment opportunities are taken by the government.

Secondly, as emphasized by Amartya Sen, development is needed so that people should enjoy freedom and a life of valued functioning. To quote Amartya Sen, “The valued functioning may vary from elementary ones, such as being adequately nourished and being free from avoidable diseases to very complex activities such as being able to take part in the life of the community and having self-respect”. Thus, according to Amartya Sen, freedom of choice, and control of one’s own life are central aspects of well- being for which true development is needed.

 

To achieve all these, economic growth is a necessary but not sufficient condition and herein lies the importance of development.

 

Concept and Definitions of Development

Social and economic development as processes is inherent to a society right from its inception. However, the emergence of the concept of development is a recent one dating back to the early nineteen fifties. The post Second World War period and the period of decolonization witnessed the emergence and the dominance of the concept of “Development” in academic literature. The declaration of 1960s as the Development decade by the United Nations led to a burgeoning of literature on the concept. Initially development was conceived as an exclusive economic term referring to “growth”, “increase in per capita income” etc. But soon it was felt, development cannot be thought of in a one- dimensional way having economic implications. It should affect the other dimensions of the society. Since then development became a sociological lexicon. Simply speaking development came to be interpreted as a process that is for the benefit of the society and only economic growth minus societal progress cannot be termed as development. Development thus stands for improvement in quality of life and conditions of living.

In general terms, “development” means an “event constituting a new stage or a changing situation”. “Development” is implicitly intended as something positive or desirable. When referring to a society or to a socio-economic system, “development” usually means improvement, either in the general situation of the system, or in some of its constituent elements.

The concept of development though was not explicitly used, finds its essence in August Comte’s ‘Law of Three Stages”, in Herbert Spencer’s evolutionary theory, in Emile Durkheim’s ideas on the progress of society from mechanical to organic solidarity, in Karl Marx’s ideas on the progress of societies through different epochs and Max Weber’s ideas on the growth of modern capitalism.

But it was in the post Second World War period and the subsequent process of decolonization, the concept of “Development” got a momentum. During this period, the pro active role of the International agencies in assisting the war affected nations to rebuild their economies, the nation building process initiated by the newly liberalized countries gave a boost to the concept of development.

The word “develop “has come from an Italian word “voluper” meaning to unwrap or unfold. The definition of ‘development’ has been always controversial over time. As Thomas argues, development as a concept is ‘contested, complex, and ambiguous’.

“Although development has been a constant concern of governments, policymakers, economists and other social scientists – and has touched the lives of more people than ever before – there has been little agreement on what constitutes development, how it is best measured and how it is best achieved. One reason for this lack of agreement is that dissatisfaction with the pace and character of economic and social change has instilled a desire to redefine the aims and measures of development.”(UNDP 1990, 104) Development      can  be      defined                                                   as       the   process      of     economic and                                                   social transformation that is based on complex cultural and environmental factors and their interactions.

Thomas (2000) explains three ways the word ‘development’ is used.

·       Development as a vision: a vision or description of how a desirable society should be.

·       Development as a historical process: social change that takes place over long periods of time due to inevitable processes. Here development refers to the unavoidable results of progress like agricultural to industrial society.

·       Development as action: deliberate efforts to change things for the better and to ensure a better standard of living like providing food, education, health services etc.

To Prof. Yogindra Singh “Development is a strategy of planned social change which is considered desirable by the members of a society.”

1.0.1.  Characteristics of Development

The following are the important characteristics of development.

1.  Development is a continuous process

The process of development continues from the moment of inception of the society. The society always marches forward. Sometimes the process of

development is faster and under some situations it slows down. However, it witnesses no complete halting point. It is ongoing in nature.

2.  Development follows a pattern

Development occurs in an orderly manner and follows a certain sequence. Thus, primitive, medieval and modern are the different phases of development of the society. The society cannot skip one stage to reach at the other in the process of development. The pattern is always maintained.

3.  Development has a direction

It runs as corollary from the above said feature that the process of development follows a definite direction. The direction is always forward and never backward. August Comte’s “Law of Three Stages”, Herbert Spencer’s proposition that the society moves from a simple to the complex one, Ferdinand Tonnies’s idea that the society transits from community to association, Emile Durkheim’s proposition that the society makes a shift from mechanical to organic solidarity and Karl Marx’s idea that the society progresses from a class to a class less society amply justify the directionality involved in the process of development. It also impresses that in the process of development, the society progresses towards maturity.

4.  Development can be evolutionary or revolutionary in nature

Development when occurs in a slow and gradual manner it is said to be evolutionary in character. Evolutionary development takes its natural course, time and in not very spectacular in nature. In the long run the impacts of development become visible. On the other hand, revolutionary development refers to the abrupt and rapid change in the society. Revolutionary development is triggered by some factors like education, migration in large scale, introduction of policies etc. Revolutionary development is marked in a quick span and is vividly visible in nature. For example, transition of a society from pre modern to modern is evolutionary development, but transition of a society from monarchy to democracy due to some revolution is revolutionary in nature. Even the developments taking in India in the post globalization period can said to be revolutionary.

5.  Development is multidimensional

The conventional notion of development always insisted upon the uni dimensionality of the concept of development focussing on economic growth. However, later on it was felt economic growth is a parameter of development, but not the sole or whole of it. At this moment the social scientists and development practitioners felt that development has to be multidimensional touching various aspects of the society. So that it can become better yielding in nature. It should not confine itself to the economic dimension, but should have its political, cultural and social dimensions too. Its political dimension is expressed through the process of democratization, distributive justice; increased consciousness for human rights, equity, liberty etc. The cultural dimensions of development is manifested through the growth of secular culture, increased consumerism etc. The social dimensions of development include increased participation of people in societal affairs, development of self reliance, better human development and environmental sustainability, etc.

6.  Development is universal, but not uniform

Development is a common process witnessed by every society however primitive or modern it is. Every society witnesses the process of development in some form or the other. Time and space cannot arrest it. Right from the beginning of the society development process is initiated. The rich and the poor societies, the most developed and the most under developed societies too experience it. In some societies it is faster while in some societies it is slow. In some societies the yields of development are more remarkable than other societies. So, the process is universal, but the outcome is not uniform.

7.  Development insists upon adaptability

Development as process is driven by human needs. Human needs change with the changing time and situations. The process of development demands the existing institutions to change and adapt to the upcoming demands to fulfil the emerging needs of the individuals. For example: with the process of industrialization there was increased migration which required the institution of joint family to disintegrate structurally.

8.  Development stands for dynamism

Development necessarily entails change. It brings changes in the status quo of a society. No development process can be imagined without bringing subsequent changes. Thus, the concept of development is against the notion of static.

9.  Development is irreversible

Development as a process is always forward looking and has no look back. There may be temporary stalemates but once a society is into the process of development, it will never revert back to its original state. So development is always progressive.

10.  Development is diffusive

Development never remains concentrated in the place of its origin. It has a natural tendency to spread beyond its place of origin. The best example of it is that when a new technology is innovated, very soon, it spreads to other areas beyond the place of its origin.

11.  Development always has positive yields

The outcomes of development are always positive. It is for the betterment of the society. Development thus is progressive. But sometimes when development outcomes are used by human beings in a negative way its consequences become disastrous. For e.g. Development of technology necessarily improves human quality of life. But when men blindly use it for destructive purpose the outcomes become sorrowful.

12.  Development has got its qualitative and quantitative connotations

Development as a process can be judged through the qualitative improvement human conditions of living. For example when there is a reduction of house hold drudgery for the women we find a qualitative change in their living conditions and term it as development of women. Similarly when there is a quantum lift or there is an increase in number of some institution, then also we feel the impact of development. For example the increase in the number of

educational institutions is also described as development. Thus the qualitative aspects of development are felt while the quantitative aspects of development are observed.

 

2.     Measurement of Development

 

How to Measure Development?

There's no single perfect way to measure development. Different approaches use various indicators depending on the focus (economic, social, etc.). Here's a breakdown of some common methods:

• Economic Indicators:
• Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita: This is a widely used measure of economic output per person. However, it doesn't consider income distribution or quality of life.
• Other economic indicators: These can include unemployment rates, infrastructure development, and openness to international trade.
• Human Development Index (HDI): This is a comprehensive index created by the UN Development Programme (UNDP). It considers three key aspects:
• Life expectancy at birth: Reflects health standards.
• Mean years of schooling and expected years of schooling: Measures educational attainment.
• Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (PPP): Represents standard of living, adjusted for purchasing power.

Beyond the Numbers:

While indexes like HDI provide a valuable starting point, development is multifaceted. Some factors not easily captured in numbers include:

• Environmental Sustainability: Preserving natural resources for future generations.
• Gender Equality: Equal opportunities and rights for women and men.
• Political Stability and Security: A peaceful environment fosters development.

 

3.     Characteristics of Developing and Developed Countries

 

Characteristics of developed and developing countries:

Developed Countries

• High GDP per capita: Developed nations have a strong and stable economy, with a high Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. This means citizens generally have a high income level.
• Strong infrastructure: Developed countries have well-developed infrastructure, including transportation networks (roads, bridges, railways), communication systems (telephone, internet), and reliable utilities (electricity, water).
• Advanced technological development and innovation: These countries are at the forefront of technological advancement and invest heavily in research and development.
• Highly educated population: A well-educated workforce is crucial for a developed economy. Developed countries typically have high literacy rates and strong education systems.
• Diversified economy with a strong service sector: The economies of developed countries are not reliant on a single industry. They tend to have a mix of industries, with a significant portion focused on the service sector (finance, healthcare, education, etc.).
• Stable political and social systems: Developed countries generally have stable political systems and low levels of crime. This creates a predictable environment for businesses and individuals.
• High standard of living and quality of life: People in developed countries tend to enjoy a high standard of living, with access to quality healthcare, education, and other necessities. There's also a focus on environmental regulations and protections.

Developing Countries

• Lower GDP per capita: Developing countries have a lower GDP per capita compared to developed nations. This reflects a lower average income level for citizens.
• Less developed infrastructure: Infrastructure in developing countries may be limited or less reliable. Transportation, communication, and utility networks may be underdeveloped.
• Limited technological advancement: These countries may have limited resources to invest in cutting-edge technologies and research.
• Lower education levels: Literacy rates and educational attainment may be lower in developing countries.
• Economy reliant on agriculture or primary industries: The economies of developing countries often rely heavily on agriculture or primary industries (mining, logging) for exports.
• Political instability or social unrest: Some developing countries may face political instability or social unrest, which can hinder development efforts.
• Lower standard of living and quality of life: People in developing countries may have limited access to healthcare, education, and other basic necessities. Environmental regulations may also be less stringent.

 

4.     Theories and Paradigms of Development

Theories and paradigms of development – unilinear and non-unilinear Unilinear World View of Development

The unilinear world view of development simply means that underdevelopment is a condition preceding development. All developed countries are late comers to the process of development, which had already taken place in the developed West. The Western developed countries followed some kinds of processes, and, they have achieved a kind of standard of living. The people of these countries enjoy certain consumer items, which are not easily available for the common men living in other parts of the world, at an affordable cost. Because of their tremendous influence on the world bodies and international scene, the Western countries have become models of development for the underdeveloped or developing countries. It suggests, therefore, that development is becoming more like the West or like the already developed countries. For becoming like the West, there are certain institutional or economic hurdles, whose removal will initiate the development process in the underdeveloped countries. Institutional or economic hurdles could be dictatorships, monarchy, and a closed type of economy like that of Burma, India, and China, to some extent. On the contrary, the "non-unilinear world-view of development" suggests that development is not becoming like the West. Under the changed historical conditions, it may not be possible for the less developed countries to become like the already developed countries. These less-developed countries shall have to find an alternative path of development.

 

 

Types of Unilinear Theories

Theories falling under the unilinear world-view may be divided into two broad categories. First, there are those theories, which consider development as harmonies and non-contentious processes. The development process benefits all rich as well as poor people, and rich as well as poor countries. There is more harmony between different groups of people and different countries. The second category of theories consider development essentially as a conflicting process. These theories refer to the rich exploiting the poor as much as the rich countries exploiting the poor.

Mainstream Paradigm

Theories under category which suggest development to be a harmonies process, lead to two paradigms: one which advocates state intervention or active role of the Government run an essential requirement for development. Most of the modem theories of development that have emerged during the post-we years come under this paradigm. This may be called as the 'Mainstream Paradigm'.

Counter-revolution Paradigm

The other paradigm, which emphasizes non-intervention by the state or non-involvement of the government, and advocates the efficiency of the market (the forces that determine demand, supply, and the cost, pricing, and production of goods, commodities and services) in promoting development, which favours "free market" for developments, is called as the 'counter- revolutionary" paradigm.

The Structuralist Paradigm

Similarly, within the category of theories, which consider development essentially as a contentious and conflict-ridden process, we find two paradigms. The structuralist paradigm suggests that underdevelopment is a consequence of the internal as well as the international structure (system of production). Internally, the less developed countries are totally dependent on the production and export of primary products (raw materials, like oil, sugar, tea, rubber, iron and other minerals etc.). On the international front, the developed countries (capitalist West) produce and export "manufactured" goods. Now, the' low level of technology and industrialization, the low elasticity of demand and adverse terms of trade (the West protecting its manufactured goods through trade tariffs, and buying the primary products of the less developed countries at low prices, has had to the exploitation of the less-developed countries by the developed countries. Therefore, these theories suggest that if the less developed countries want development, they are required to change the structure (system) of production increasingly in favour of manufactured goods through capital based technology and industrialization. Once the 'underdeveloped' countries do this, they too can developed like the West.

The Orthodox Marxist Paradigm

On the other hand, the Orthodox Marxist Paradigm considers that conflict and contradictions in the development of capitalism are inevitable, and that these can only be resolved through a revolution, which will then usher in the next phase of development.

Types of non-unilinear theories

If we turn to the theories under the "non-unilinear world view", here too we can subgroup the theories into two paradigms: one, the populist paradigm and the other the neo-Marxist paradigm. Thus, we can broadly classify two "World-views of development", the unilinear and the non- unilinear, in six paradigms, viz., the mainstream paradigm, the counterrevolution, the Structuralist, the Orthodox Marxist, all the four belonging to a Unilinear World View. The populist and Neo- Marxist are the two paradigms of "non-Unilinear world View".

 

 

Unilinear World-view of Development

We shall discuss, briefly, the important features of the theories of development under each paradigm and their implications for the strategy of development in the Third World countries. We shall discuss the main features of each and every paradigm of the unilinear world-view of development. Let us start with the mainstream paradigm.

i)                        Mainstream Paradigm: Of those paradigms, which project development as becoming more like the West and developing countries as late-comers to the process, with certain initial conditions, which should be overcome to experience transition to development, the more familiar is what could be described as the 'Mainstream paradigm'. It includes most of the familiar development theories like the "big-push' ' or "balanced growth" theory of Rosenstun Rodan, the "vicious circle" theory of Ragnar Nurks, the "unbalanced growth theory of Alber Hirsheman, the "dulasim" theory of Arthur Lewis, the "stage theory" of

W.W. Rostow and the "neo-Malthusian" theory of Harvey Leibenstin. (For an ‘explanation of some of these theories, see Glossary).

In spite of differences in the framework, point of emphasis etc., there are certain aspects, which are common in these theories, the most important resource for development is savings or accumulation of capital. The transition from underdevelopment to development is essentially a process of moving from low savings ratio of about 5% of the GNP to a high savings ratio of about 12% or more. "Development is a process of transforming an economy, which is predominantly agriculture-based and other related primary activities, towards predominance of industry and non-primary activities."

Therefore, these theories describe the initial conditions or barriers responsible for the low savings, and suggest strategies to overcome those hurdles, which would put the underdeveloped countries on the path of development like the West. The persistence of the low savings is due to the vicious circle of poverty: low income, low savings, low investment, low productivity, and low income.

There is also the vicious circle on the demand side like the low inducement to invest because of the low level of productivity due to low level of investment.

Once this low savings syndrome is overcome, then aid or foreign investments help in a sustained development, either through balanced investment or investment in the unbalanced sectors that would set up inducements and pressures.

In the process of mobilizing savings and channeling the same for development, the mainstream theories consider state intervention, either through the governmental planning or state programmes, as essential. Most of the newly independent countries have embarked upon the development strategies, which were inspired by the theories of the mainstream paradigm.

 

ii)                     Counter-revolution Paradigm: In contrast, the Counter-revolution paradigm considers the state intervention as the cause of inefficiency and distortions in the resouxe use. According to this paradigm, the state intervention through? Licensing and regulation leads to 'directly unproductive profit seeking', corruption, and red tape. Minimizing the state's role, and allowing the market to play the role in allocation of resources, would improve efficiency, competitiveness, and rapid growth. This paradigm has gained some popularity only in the 1980s, by which time there was widespread disenchantment with the interventionist policies. In recent years, this paradigm is at the basis of the package of liberalization that is recommended by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. The Structural paradigm: The origins of the structuralist paradigm could be traced to the writings based on the Latin American experience. There are two variants of the structuralist paradigm, one refemng to the distortions internal structure, and the other pointing to the global or international structure, It is the 'international structuralism' of the Rural Prebisch that is more familiar. According to the paradigm, the world is divided into the developed capitalist countries forming the core of 'the Centre', and the underdeveloped countries forming the theory over the years, there emerged a division of labour with the Centre producing and exporting manufactured goods and the Periphery depending on the production and export of the primary products. While the income elasticity of demand for high technology and high

 

Productivity-based manufactures is high, it is low for the primary products. As a result, while the demand for the manufactured goods increased faster, ensuring higher prices for their exports, the demand for the primary products increased slowly, and the export prices did not keep pace with the rise in the prices of imported manufactured goods. There was, in the long-run, deterioration in the terms of trade of the primary exports from the less- developed countries. All the benefits, technical progress and productivity flowed to the developed center, keeping the periphery in a continued state of underdevelopment.

 

To break this structural distortion and to initiate the development process in the periphery, it is necessary to pursue a policy of protection to the manufacturing sector from the developed countries. The strategy directly flowing from the structuralist paradigm is Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI). Though it has caused sufficient problems later, the IS1 was a very popular strategy of development, particularly in Latin America.

 

iii)                   Orthodox Marxist Paradigm: The familiar Marxist concept of development is associated with the five epochs or stages: (i) Primitive Communism, (ii) Ancient Slave State, (iii) Feudalism, (iv) Capitalism, and (v) Socialism. Each of these epochs is marked by a corresponding mode of production. Development, in this framework, may be viewed as one of transitions from feudalism to capitalism.

The Orthodox Marxist theory also visualized the future of the underdeveloped countries, entirely in terms of the developed capitalist countries. Karl Marx wrote that "the country that is more developed, industrially, only shows to the less developed the image of its own future." It is such an image of development that led Marx and Engels to believe that the capitalist colonial expansion would result in the spread of development of capitalism in the countries.

 

Contrary to such expectations, as capitalism spread all over the world, a greater part of the world has experienced only its disintegrating effects, without benefiting from its creative side. Moreover, the united industrialisation of the West was possible only at the expense of the so-called underdeveloped world, which was doomed to stagnation and regression. The classical Marxist writings, by concentrating on the European experience, anticipated the spread of development and not underdevelopment. They did not have much to say on

the process of underdevelopment. There appears to be not much analysis of the historical experience .of the colonial countries in Asia and Africa. Hence the criticism that Marx's writings were Europe-centric, denying all the history and experience of the colonial countries.

 

Non-Unilinear World-view of Development

 

So far, we have discussed how the developing countries could attain the status of the developed countries. We have said that the process adopted by many Third World countries is unilinear moving from one step to another logically. Now, here, we shall discuss some paradigms which are not unilinear. Their nature is not that systematic. So, let us move ahead.

 

a)        Populist Paradigm: The term “popu " is used here in the absence of any other term that is adequate to describe this approach. Tine theories under the "Populist" approach question

Either the need or possibility of the less-developed counties developing on the lines of the Concept of Development already developed capitalist countries. The Gandhian thinking on the appropriate development for countries like India, and some contributions from someone like E.F. Schumacher, who wrote Small is Beautiful, may be considered as part of the "populist" paradigm.

 

Gandhi thought that the Western type of development had nothing to commend to societies like India. His contention was that the Western industrialization had brought along with it immortality, crime, and cultural degeneration. "Development in a country like India should make the village as the centre, and provide employment and livelihood through a network of cottage and village industries. 'Gram Swaraj' or 'village united development' would not only ensure against the evils of industrialization and urbanization, but also absorb millions of people without uprooting them from their appropriate village industries.

 

The contribution of Schumacher is also inspired by the Gandhian thinking. It is well- known through his book, small is Beautiful. The two severe problems of the less developed countries, according to him, were mass unemployment and mass migration to the urban areas. Much of the Western type of industrialization initiated in the less developed countries helped only a fraction of the population living in the urban areas, while the mass of population living in rural areas were bypassed. Thus, in the less developed countries, there emerged what is known as "dual economics" of urban and rural areas, each within different patterns of living, widely separated from each other, living as two different worlds. That the rural masses would be absorbed by the Western type of industrialization is utterly unrealistic. What is needed is creation of appropriate technology that would promote employment opportunities through a network of small

production units, a primary condition for such a development involves education, organization, and development.

 

Populist paradigm is discussed as an alternative strategy by not housed by any less- developed country. This is partly because of the dominance of the mainstream paradigm in the initial stages of independence, and the creation of an impression among the people that development means becoming like the West. After raising such false hopes, any attempt to adopt a Gandhian or "populist" alternative strategy, it is feared, would not be liked by the people, Most of the less developed countries hold on to the "mainstream" paradigm, its failures notwithstanding.

 

b)       Neo-Marxist Paradigm: A serious challenge to the unilinear world-view of development did not arise until the emergence of the neo-Marxist paradigm. There are quite a few economists who can be called neo-Marxist, but here, we are concerned with the writings of Paul Baran, A.G. Frank, and the related6'dependency theory". An attempt is made here to capture the neo-Marxist paradigm, as far as possible, in terms of the original writings. The essence of the paradigm lies in the fact that, at present, the less developed countries cannot develop like the West. It stresses the interconnectedness of development and underdevelopment, of traditional and modem, and indeed many other social, political and economic factors. It seems many conflicts and clashes of interest in the development process occur, both between nations and between social classes within the underdeveloped countries. It emphasizes the historical factors, especially, the active process of how underdevelopment has come into being in the various Third World countries.

 

Paul Baran declared that underdevelopment of most of the world was a direct result of the dynamics of monopoly capitalism, which had mocked the primary accumulation of capital in the underdeveloped regions, and smothered their novice industries. He sums up his thesis as follows: 'thus the people, who came into the orbit of Western capitalist expansion, found themselves, in the light of feudalism and capitalism, enduring the worst features of both worlds. Their exploitation was multiplied, yet its fruits were not to increase their productive wealth; they wen! Abroad or served to support a parasitic bourgeoisie at home. They lived in abysmal misery, yet they had no prospect of a better tomorrow. They existed under capitalism, yet there was no accumulation of capital. They lost their time-honored means of livelihood, their arts and crafts, yet there was no modern industry to provide new ones in their place. They were thrusted into extensive contact with the advanced science of the West, yet remained in a state of the darkest backwardness."

 

Referring to India as a case in point, Baran observes, "India, if left to herself, might have found in the course of time a shorter and surely less tortuous mid towards a bettecand rich& society. It would have been, however, an entirely different India (and an entirely different world), had she been allowed as some more fortunate countries

were, to realize her destiny in her own way, to employ her resources for her own benefit, and to harness her energies and abilities for the advancement of her own people."

 

The most forceful presentation of the neo-Marxist thesis is found in Andre Gunder Frank: "Under development is not just the lack of development. Before there was development, there was no underdevelopment. This relation between development and underdevelopment is not just a comparative one, in the sense that some places are more developed) and yet there is underdevelopment".

A.G. Frank contents that underdevelopment as we know it today, and economic development as well, are the simultaneous and related products of development on a world wide scale, and over a history of more than four centuries, at least, of a single integrated economic system: Capitalism. Though integrated in the sense that its far- flung parts are interrelated, and in the sense that it internally generates its own transformation, the capitalist system is also wrought by contradiction. One part exploits another, though it also diffuses back some of the fruits of the economic and cultural development based on that exploitation.

 

5.     Problems of Underdevelopment.

 

1.    Low Per Capita Income

The average per capita income of these countries is extremely low, compared to the developed nations The World Bank has classified various nations as low, lower-middle, upper-middle and high per capita income countries. Low per capita income is one of the most defining characteristics of developing economies. They suffer from low per capita income level, which results in low savings and low investments. It means the average person doesn’t earn enough money to invest or save money. They spend whatever they earn.

New limits are determined at the start of the World Bank’s fiscal year in July and that remains fixed for 12 months regarding per capita income for classifying countries according to per capita income. As of July 1, 2019, the new thresholds for classification by per capita income per year are:

 

Threshold	July 2019 ($)
Low Income	<1025
Lower-Middle Income	1026-3995
Upper-Middle Income	3996-12375
High Income	>12375

 

 

2.    High population growth rate/size

The developing nations either have high population growth rates or large populations. Very often this is because of lack of family planning options, and the belief that more children could result in a higher labor force for the family to earn income. Therise in population in recent decades is also because of higher birth rates and reduced death rates through improved health care.

3.    High Unemployment Rate

Large-scale unemployment is a major factor perpetuating underdevelopment  in  these  countries.  Moreover,  in  rural

areas, unemployment suffers from large seasonal variations and this results in wide spread rural-urban migration in agricultural off- seasons in search of jobs.

4.    Excessive Dependence on the Primary Sector for Employment Traditionally almost 75% of the population of low-income countries is rurally based. As income levels rise, the structure of demand changes,       which      leads to       a     rise     in     the      importance of             the manufacturing sector and then the services sector.

5.    Vicious Cycle of Poverty

Low per capita income, high rate of population growth and high unemployment creates a vicious cycle of poverty that most of the population struggles to escape. The percentage of people in absolute poverty (below the minimum income level, defined by poverty line) is high in developing countries. It is a consumption of Rs 27 a day per person for rural areas and Rs 30 a day for urban areas.

6.    Disproportionate Dependence on Exports of Primary goods

A significant portion of output in developing countries originates from the primary sector, that is, agriculture, mining and allied activities. As a result, a large portion of exports is also from the primary sector.

7.    Excessive Dependence on Foreign Debt

The governments of these countries borrow heavily from foreign countries to run their expenses and debt servicing becomes a heavy burden.

8.    Unfavorable Institutional Structure

Many of the customs,traditions and culture of these countries pave the way for uneconomic spending and perpetuate underdevelopment. Very often unstable governments and political corruption add fuel to the fire of underdevelopment.

 

MJMC 2 Sem

Unit-II Development and International Communication

1.     Development Communication : Concept, Roles and Definition

Concept

Development communication is the strategic use of communication to bring about positive social change. It's a field that combines communication theory with social development principles to improve the lives of individuals and communities.

Development communication focuses on empowering people with information and knowledge so they can make informed decisions about their lives and participate in the development process. It uses a variety of communication channels, such as mass media, interpersonal communication, and participatory communication, to reach target audiences.

Roles

Development communicators play a crucial role in facilitating social development. Here are some of their key roles:

• Raising awareness: Development communicators help to raise awareness of important development issues, such as health, education, and poverty.
• Behavior change: They design and implement communication campaigns to encourage people to adopt new behaviors that will improve their lives.
• Social mobilization: Development communicators help to mobilize communities to take collective action on development issues.
• Advocacy: They advocate for policies and programs that will promote social development.
• Capacity building: Development communicators help to build the capacity of individuals and communities to communicate effectively.
• Engaging Stakeholders: Development communication acts as a bridge between communities, policymakers, and other stakeholders involved in development initiatives.
• Facilitating Information Sharing: It creates platforms for knowledge exchange to ensure everyone has the information they need to participate effectively.
• Promoting Behavior Change: Development communication campaigns aim to raise awareness and encourage positive behavioral changes that contribute to development goals (e.g., hygiene practices, sustainable farming techniques).
• Social Mobilization: It can be used to mobilize communities to take collective action on development issues.
• Advocacy: Development communication can be a tool for advocating for policies that support positive social change.

Definition

There are many definitions of development communication, but one of the most common is that it is the "art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfillment of human potential" [Nora Quebral, 1975].

In simpler terms, development communication is about using communication to make a positive difference in the world. It's about using the power of communication to empower people, improve lives, and create a more just and equitable society.

Development communication is a field that focuses on using communication strategies to bring about positive social change. Here's a breakdown of the key points:

Concept:

• Development communication utilizes various communication channels to empower individuals and communities.
• It aims to improve their socio-economic conditions and quality of life through informed participation in development initiatives.
• This field is relatively new, emerging in the 1970s.

Definition:

There are different definitions for development communication, but some common themes include:

• Nora Quebral's Definition (1975): "The art and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country and the mass of its people from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth that makes possible greater social equality and the larger fulfillment of human potential." (This definition highlights the role of communication as both a science and an art in development)
• World Bank Definition: "An interdisciplinary field...based on empirical research that helps build consensus while it facilitates the sharing of knowledge to achieve a positive change in the development initiative." (This definition emphasizes the importance of research and two-way communication for successful development projects)

 

2.     Philosophy of Development Communication

philosophy of development communication:

• Communication as a Catalyst for Change: Development communication believes that communication is a powerful tool to bring about positive social, economic, and environmental changes. It aims to empower individuals and communities through knowledge and participation.
• Focus on Participation: Unlike traditional top-down communication models, development communication emphasizes a two-way dialogue approach. This means involving communities in the communication process, understanding their needs and perspectives, and fostering their participation in development initiatives.
• Purposive and Positive: Development communication messages are crafted with a specific goal in mind, which is to achieve positive social change. This could involve promoting healthy behaviors, advocating for social justice, or encouraging sustainable practices.
• Emphasis on Sustainability: True development goes beyond just economic growth. Development communication recognizes the importance of environmental sustainability and social justice for long-term well-being.
• Culturally Sensitive: Effective development communication considers the cultural context of the target audience. Messages need to be tailored to resonate with their existing beliefs, values, and communication styles.

Here are some additional ideas to explore:

• Theoretical models of development communication: There are different models within development communication, such as the Diffusion Model and the Participatory Model. Understanding these models can help you see how communication strategies are designed for development goals.
• The role of communication technologies: Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) play a significant role in development communication today. How can these tools be harnessed for effective communication and community engagement?

These are just some starting points for your exploration of the philosophy of development communication. There are many resources available online and in libraries to delve deeper into this field.

 

3. Approaches and Models of Development Communications

Approaches and Models in Development Communication

Development communication employs various approaches to achieve its goals of social progress and positive change. Here's a breakdown of some key approaches:

·        Participatory Communication: This approach emphasizes involving the target community in the communication process. People aren't just passive receivers of information; they actively participate in creating messages, sharing experiences, and shaping solutions. Tools like community radio, participatory video, and focus groups are often used here.

·        Advocacy and Awareness Campaigns: This approach aims to raise awareness about a specific issue and influence policy or behavior change. Think public health campaigns promoting vaccination or environmental campaigns advocating for sustainability.

·        Behavior Change Communication (BCC): This approach focuses on motivating individuals and communities to adopt new behaviors that benefit them. For instance, BCC campaigns might encourage better hygiene practices to prevent the spread of disease.

·        Media for Development: This approach utilizes various media channels like radio, TV, print, and social media to deliver development messages effectively. The focus is on choosing the right channels to reach the target audience and deliver content in a way that resonates with them.

·        Capacity Building and Skill Development: This approach empowers communities by equipping them with the communication skills and knowledge they need to advocate for themselves and participate in development initiatives. This can involve training on using technology, public speaking, or writing communication materials.

Models of Development Communication

There's no one-size-fits-all model in development communication. Here are two contrasting models to illustrate the range:

·        Diffusion Model: This older model views communication as a one-way flow of information, from experts or development agencies to the target audience. The idea is that exposure to new information will lead to adoption of new behaviors.

·        Empowerment Model: This model emphasizes two-way communication and active participation of the target community. It focuses on understanding local contexts, building trust, and fostering dialogue to achieve sustainable development.

Philosophy of Development Communication

The core philosophy of development communication revolves around the following principles:

• Participation: Everyone affected by a development issue should have a voice and be involved in finding solutions.
• Empowerment: Communication should equip communities with the knowledge and skills they need to advocate for themselves and improve their lives.
• Social Justice: Development communication aims to bridge information gaps and promote equality so everyone benefits from progress.
• Sustainability: Effective development communication fosters long-term positive change that communities can maintain.

By following these principles and employing the various approaches and models, development communication strives to create a more just and equitable world.

 

3.     Development Support Communication

What it is:

• A strategic communication approach focused on social development and positive change.
• Uses various communication channels to inform, educate, and motivate specific audiences.
• Aims to create a two-way dialogue between development planners, beneficiaries, and stakeholders.

Goals:

• Raise awareness about development initiatives and programs.
• Encourage positive behavior changes that support development goals (e.g., health, education).
• Build capacity and empower communities to participate in development efforts.
• Foster social change and improve socio-economic conditions.

Key aspects:

• Participatory: Emphasizes two-way communication and audience feedback.
• Multi-sectoral: Applicable in various fields like health, agriculture, education.
• Channel agnostic: Utilizes various communication channels (mass media, community meetings, interpersonal communication).
• Culturally appropriate: Messages are tailored to the specific audience and their cultural context.

Benefits:

• Increased understanding and adoption of development initiatives.
• More effective resource allocation and project implementation.
• Empowered communities and increased ownership of development outcomes.

 

4.     Planning and Strategies in Development

Planning and Strategies in Development

Effective development requires a solid foundation of planning and well-defined strategies. Here are some key points to consider:

Planning:

• Goal Setting: Clearly define your development goals. What do you want to achieve? What problem are you solving? Setting SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound) ensures focus and direction.
• Situation Analysis: Understand your current situation. Conduct a SWOT analysis to identify your Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. This helps leverage strengths, address weaknesses, capitalize on opportunities, and mitigate threats.
• Resource Assessment: Identify the resources required for development. This includes manpower, budget, technology, and any other necessary tools.

Strategies:

• Align with Goals: Ensure your development strategies directly contribute to achieving your defined goals.
• Prioritization: Not all strategies are created equal. Prioritize strategies based on their impact and feasibility.
• Flexibility: The development landscape can be dynamic. Build in adaptability to adjust strategies as needed based on new information or changing circumstances.

Here are some additional tips:

• Involve Stakeholders: Get buy-in from key stakeholders throughout the planning and development process.
• Communication: Clearly communicate plans and strategies to everyone involved.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Regularly monitor progress and evaluate the effectiveness of your strategies. Be prepared to make adjustments as needed.

By following these principles, you can increase your chances of successful development in any field.

 Unit-III

Role of Media in Development Communication

1.     Media and Development Communication

 Mass Media                                                                                                                                          

 

·        First, the structure and content of mass media is shaped by changes in the economic, political and socio-cultural contexts. For instance, we see how centre and the state and its vision of development influenced the media in the first decades after independence. And how in the post 1990 period of globalisation the market has a key role to play.

·        Second, the relationship between mass media and communication with society is dialectical. Both influence each other. The nature and role of mass media is influenced by the society in which it is located. At the same time the far reaching influence of mass media on society cannot be over-emphasised.

·        Third, mass communication is different from other means of communication as it requires a formal structural organisation to meet large-scale capital, production and management demands. The state and/or the market have a major role in the structure and functioning of mass media. Mass media functions through very large organisations with major investments and large body of employees.

·        Fourth, there are sharp differences between how easily different sections of people can use mass media.

Mass                                  Media                                  Before                                           Globalisation

(1)  Beginning of Mass Media

·        The first modern mass media institution began with the development of the printing press. The first attempts at printing books using modern technologies began in Europe. This technique was first developed by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. Initial attempts at printing were restricted to religious books.

·        With the Industrial Revolution, the print industry also grew. The first products of the press were restricted to an audience of literate elites.

(2) 

·        Newspapers in different languages came up (vernacular, newspaper) of Matrabhumi, Amrita Bazaar, Kesari. ·        Through these newspapers they tried to promote the freedom struggle, national movement to instigate people to fight the British but the British disliked this censoring. ·        Hence even though newspapers were not under the British government they monitored them through censorship. ·        There were not many literate people. Hence many did not read the papers. ·        Because of monocular languages, their influence was widespread among the people. ·        The underlying news was to fight for the freedom of the people.

During Colonial Rule                                                                                                                              

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(3)  All Independent India                                                                                                                              

·        In 1920 developed in India ·        Started in Kolkata and Chennai

 Radio                                                                                                                                    

 

 Colonial Rule                                                                                                                                    

·        1940 during the World War II, radio became worldwide in India.                                                                                                                              

 After Independence                                                                                                                                    

·        The government decided that radio broadcasting has to exist in all major cities, towns and important districts (border areas).

·        Spread all over India.

·        Present at three levels—National, Regional – local language and Local – city radio.

·        All programmes cater to the diversity of India in terms of language, region and culture

·        and specially national and regional.

·        By the end of the 20th Century it was broadcasted in 24 languages and 146 dialects.

Globalization and Mass Media

·        Till globalization in 1990’s each industry in mass media was separate

·        After       globalization.       Radio,       TV,       newspapers                came                     together,

e.g                        music                        &                        film                    industry National              international

(A)                                                                                                             Print                                                                       Media Advantages

·        Despite coming up of TV and radio, newspapers was popular because it was easily accessed, cheaper, monocular.

Changes

·        Using modem technology, attractive advertisements, separate sections/ categories. Supplements

Disadvantage

·        Only literate people could read.

·        Different states have regional newspapers.

·        Information and Entertainment, Edutainment (newspapers cater to this)

·        Once upon a time newspapers used to values, but now they are purely commercial.

(B)  Television

·        In 1991 there was one state controlled TV channel Doordarshan in India. By 1998 there were almost 70 channels came into existence.

·        Star TV -Caters to different demands and Categories of people, Zee TV and Sony too.

·        Regional networking started e.g. STAR Bengali, Sony TV in Tamil Nadu.

·        Z also started regional networking.

·        The 1990’s cable operators were popular and catered to people of their area.

·        One of the reasons for popularity – English serials dubbed in regional languages.

·        One major channel became 24 x 7 news channel

·        TV changed a lot

(C)  Radio

·        FM came after globalisation in the beginning of the 20th Century.

·        Privately owned radio channels started and are purely for entertainment purposes.

·        They cannot broadcast any political views and cannot speak against the government.

·        Each FM has their own tagline

·        Development Communication

· 

·        Development Communication is an important field that focuses on using communication strategies to foster social change and development. Here’s a brief overview of the key concepts and elements of Development Communication:

·        Approaches to Development: This involves understanding different perspectives of development beyond economic growth, such as the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), which are considered better measures of a country’s development and the well-being of its people¹.

·        Concept of Development Communication: It’s defined as the deployment of communication as a catalyst for social change aimed at improving the lives of the poor in sustainable ways. The field has evolved from a top-down model to a participatory model where social and cultural factors are crucial¹.

·        Media in Development Communication: The role of media, including mass media, alternative media, and traditional media like folk theater and puppetry, is to engage communities in positive social change. Media strategies have shifted from government propaganda to encouraging people’s participation and bottom-up decision-making¹.

·        New Technologies: The scope of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) as tools for empowerment and inclusive growth is also a significant aspect of Development Communication. It discusses how these technologies can be used to improve the socio- economic conditions of people¹.

·        People’s Participation: Participatory communication and democracy are central to Development Communication, emphasizing the importance of citizen’s participation in policy formulation and decision-making processes for inclusive growth¹.

·        For a more detailed understanding, you might want to explore academic resources or textbooks that provide comprehensive notes on Development Communication. These resources will offer in-depth insights into the theories, models, and practical applications of communication strategies in development work. Remember, the field is vast and interdisciplinary, so there’s always more to learn and understand about how communication can drive development and social change.

 

2.     Community and Alternative Media

Community and alternative media represent a diverse range of media practices that are distinct from mainstream commercial media. They often focus on community engagement, represent marginalized groups, and provide a platform for voices that are typically underrepresented in traditional media.

Here’s a brief overview of the key concepts:

Alternative Media:

 

·        Definition: Media practices that offer an alternative to mainstream commercial media, often characterized by their content, production, or distribution methods.

·        Forms: Can include folk media, small-scale newspapers, community video, community radio, and citizen journalism.

·        Relation to New Media: Alternative media also encompasses independent news websites and social media platforms, which can offer more participatory forms of communication.

·        Future: The future of alternative media is closely tied to technological advancements and the evolving landscape of media consumption.

·        Definition: Alternative media provides an alternative to mainstream media, often focusing on content that challenges the status quo or represents marginalized communities¹.

·        Forms:      It       includes      various      forms      such      as folk                   media, small-scale newspapers, community radio, community video, and citizen journalism.

 

 

 

Community Media:

 

·        Definition: Media that is created, operated, and consumed by members of a community. It aims to serve and reflect the community, often focusing on local issues and interests.

·        Characteristics: Community media is participatory, accessible, and localized. It emphasizes community involvement in the creation and dissemination of content.

·        Forms: Includes various types of media such as community radio, newsletters, and digital platforms that cater to specific communities.

·        Role in Development: Community media plays a crucial role in development by facilitating communication, education, and participation within communities.

·        Definition: It's a media sector distinct from commercial and public media, focusing on providing a platform for the community and social good, rather than profit [Wikipedia].

·        Focus on Participation: Community media is all about giving people a voice. Unlike traditional media, it encourages everyone to be involved in creating content and shaping the conversation [eGyanKosh].

·        Local Matters: Community media centers around local issues, concerns, and cultures. It provides an alternative perspective to the national narratives often presented in mainstream media.

·        Many Forms: Community media can take many shapes, including radio stations, print publications, web platforms, and even video [Wikipedia]. Community radio is a particularly common example [Encyclopedia.com].

·        Empowering Role: Community media can be a powerful tool for building citizenship, raising social awareness, and promoting democratic discourse [UNIT 18 COMMUNITY MEDIA AND DEVELOPMENT, Encyclopedia.com].

 

Challenges: It's important to note that community media also faces hurdles, such as funding limitations and competition from established media outlets [medialit.org].

 

 

3.     Sources for Development stories

Here’s a brief overview based on the information available:

Economic Development: This involves improving the economic wealth of a region through various means such as increasing income, improving living standards, and ensuring sustainable resource management.

Social Development: This aspect focuses on improving the well-being of individuals in society. It includes education, healthcare, equality, and access to services.

Sustainable Development: This is about meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It involves a balanced approach to economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection.

 

People:

 

·        Experts: Academics, researchers, and practitioners in the development field relevant to your story (e.g., economists for poverty analysis, health specialists for healthcare initiatives).

·        People on the Ground: Those directly impacted by the development issue (community members, beneficiaries, project workers).

·        Government Officials: Policymakers and representatives involved in development programs.

·        NGO/Civil Society Representatives: People working with communities on development projects.

·        Business Leaders: Those involved in development initiatives (e.g., social enterprises).

 

Documents & Data:

 

·        Reports: From NGOs, government agencies, international organizations (World Bank, UN agencies).

·        Research Papers: Academic studies on relevant development topics.

·        Government Data: Statistics and reports on development indicators.

·        Project Documents & Evaluations: Detailed information on specific development projects.

 

Additional Resources:

 

·        Press Releases & Media Kits: From NGOs, government agencies, and organizations working on development.

·        Websites: Of relevant organizations, research institutions, and development publications.

 

Tips for Using Sources:

 

·        Credibility & Expertise: Evaluate the source's qualifications and background.

·        Balance   &    Perspective: Seek   viewpoints   from   different                 stakeholders                    (affected communities, experts, policymakers).

·        Transparency: Disclose any potential conflicts of interest with sources.

·        Verification: Cross-check information with multiple sources and documents.

 

Building Source Relationships:

 

·        Develop trust: Be honest, reliable, and respectful in your interactions.

·        Offer value: Explain how your story can raise awareness for their work.

·        Maintain communication: Keep sources updated on the story's progress.

 

By utilizing these sources and fostering good relationships, you'll gather the information needed to craft compelling and informative development stories.

 

 

4.     Different Types of Development Stories: News, Features and Reports

1.     News: This is the most immediate form of journalism that reports on recent events. It is characterized by the 5Ws and 1H—Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How¹. News stories are typically written in the inverted pyramid style, presenting the most crucial information first.

2.     Features: These are more in-depth than news stories and often include storytelling elements and details similar to those found in novels. Feature stories are considered soft news and focus on human interest aspects, providing a deeper understanding of the subject.

3.     Reports: This category includes various forms of journalism such as objective reporting, interpretative  reporting, investigative  reporting,  and crime reporting. Reports are detailed accounts that may include analysis, background information, and sometimes the writer’s opinion.

For class notes, you might want to focus on the following aspects for each type:

 

·        News: Emphasize on the structure of news writing, the importance of timeliness, and the use of reliable sources.

·        Features: Discuss the narrative techniques used, the importance of depth and detail, and how features differ from hard news.

·        Reports: Cover the different types of reporting, the significance of factual accuracy, and the ethical considerations in reporting.

 

These notes should give you a good foundation for understanding the different types of development stories in journalism.

 

These three categories (News, Features, Reports) all deliver information, but they target it in different ways:

 

·        News: Delivers the "who, what, when, where, why, and how" of recent events. It focuses on currency and impact. Think breaking news stories, election results, or major scientific discoveries.

·        Features: Dives deeper into a topic, providing context, analysis, and human interest. Features can explore the "why" behind a news story, or introduce a new trend or issue. They often use storytelling techniques and rich descriptions.

·        Reports: Present data and analysis in a structured format. Reports can be research findings, project evaluations, or market analyses. They tend to be more formal and objective than news or feature stories.

 

Here's a table summarizing the key differences:

Feature	News	Reports
Focus	Recent events	Context & Analysis
Style	Concise & objective	Engaging & informative
Structure	Inverted pyramid	Varies (data-driven)
Target audience	General public	Specific audience
Examples	Election results, breaking news	Profile of a local business, explainer on climate change

 

Additional points to consider:

 

·        News Features: These combine elements of both news and features. They might report on a recent development but then delve deeper with background information or human stories.

·        Timeliness: News is most time-sensitive, followed by features. Reports can cover recent events but often focus on ongoing trends or analyses.

 

5.  Developmental issues in India

Here are some key points that are often discussed in class notes on this topic:

 

·        Poverty: A significant portion of India’s population lives below the poverty line, with limited access to basic necessities like food, shelter, and healthcare.

·        Rural-Urban Divide: There is a stark contrast between rural and urban areas, with rural regions often lagging in terms of infrastructure, education, and healthcare facilities.

·        Unequal Wealth Distribution: The wealth gap in India is considerable, with a small percentage of the population holding a large portion of the nation’s wealth.

·        Education: Access to quality education is a persistent issue, with many children, especially in rural areas, not attending school or receiving substandard education.

·        Healthcare: The healthcare system faces challenges such as inadequate facilities, shortage of healthcare professionals, and high out-of-pocket expenses for patients.

·        Employment: Unemployment and underemployment are major concerns, with many individuals not being able to find work that matches their skills and education level.

·        Infrastructure: Despite improvements, there is still a need for better infrastructure, including roads, electricity, and water supply, particularly in rural areas.

·        Gender Inequality: Women and girls often face discrimination in various forms, impacting their education, employment, and health outcomes.

·        Environmental Issues: Pollution, deforestation, and climate change are pressing concerns that affect the country’s development and the well-being of its citizens.

 

India, despite being one of the fastest growing economies, grapples with several developmental challenges. Here's a snapshot of some key issues:

 

·        Poverty and Inequality: Though poverty rates have declined, a significant portion of the population still lives below the poverty line. This issue is exacerbated by unequal distribution of resources and income. [poverty in india]

·        Education: While literacy rates are rising, disparities exist between rural and urban areas. Quality education and access to higher education remain challenges. [illiteracy in india]

·        Healthcare: Inadequate healthcare infrastructure and malnutrition continue to be concerns. There's a need for wider accessibility to quality medical care.

·        Infrastructure Gaps: Deficiencies in rural infrastructure, including roads, power, and sanitation, hinder development and economic opportunities.

·        Gender Inequality: Discrimination against women and girls persists in areas like education, employment, and safety.

·        Environmental Concerns: Rapid development has led to environmental degradation, pollution, and resource depletion. Balancing development with sustainability is crucial.

International Communication

1.  International Communication : Meaning and Scope

2.  International Information Agencies

3.  Role of Media in creating International Opinion / Propaganda

4.  New World and Information Order

5.  International Organizations : UNO, SAARC, ASEAN, NATO, NAM

 

International communication (also referred to as the study of global communication or transnational communication) is the communication practice that occurs across international borders. The need for international communication was due to the increasing effects and influences of globalization. As a field of study, international communication is a branch of communication studies, concerned with the scope of "government-to-government", "business-to-business", and "people-to-people" interactions at a global level. Currently, international communication is being taught at colleges worldwide. Due to the increasingly globalized market, employees who possess the ability to effectively communicate across cultures are in high demand. International communication "encompasses political, economic, social, cultural and military concerns"

 

 

The advent of telegraph and time–space compression

In 1837, Samuel Morse invented the telegraph. The telegraph worked by transmitting electrical signals over a wire laid between stations. It was the first mode of communication to eliminate the effect of distance, allowing for a near instantaneous connection. Given its speed and reliability in delivering information, telegraph offered opportunities for capital and military expansion. It also increased market integration. It did so by lowering the cost of trade by increasing the capacity utilization of shipping. As showed in Table 1.1, the establishment of cable hardware signifies global power order in late nineteenth and early twentieth century.

Cabling the world

	1892	1892	1923	1923
	length(km)	global share(%)	length(km)	global share(%)
British Empire	163,619	66.3	297,802	50.5
United States	38,986	15.8	142,621	24.2
French Empire	21,859	8.9	64,933	11.0

	1892	1892	1923	1923
Denmark	13,201	5.3	15,590	2.6
Others	9206	3.7	68,282	11.7
All cables combined	246,871	100.0	589,228	100.0

 

The era of news agencies

The newspaper industry and international telegraph networks mutually facilitated each other. Telegraph communications drastically altered the way in which news was produced. The individual items of modern newspapers became no longer selected on the basis of spatial proximity, but following newly emerging journalistic criteria of news relevance. As the supply and demand of the newspaper industry rapidly increased in the nineteenth century, news agencies were established successively.

The French Havas Agency was founded in 1835, the German agency Wolffs Telegraphisches Bureau in 1849, and the British Reuters in 1851. These three European agencies began as financial-data services for bankers, but eventually started to operate internationally and extended their coverage to world news.[11] They were all subsidized by their respective governments. By 1866, national news agencies were beginning to rise in many European countries. While they covered and sold news locally, they relied on the major services for coverage and sales abroad.

The global media and news agencies have played a fundamental role in contemporary globalization, making possible the feeling of instant communication and the experience of global connection. They have played a pioneering role in the use of new technologies, such as the telegraph, which have altered the nature of news. Technological innovation continues to be a major area of competition between global news agencies.

Radio broadcasting

Western countries seized the chances to implement radio communication after the first radio transmissions of human voice in 1902. But the two mechanisms of radio broadcasting were distinctively different. In the US, the Radio Act of 1927 confirmed its status as an advertising-funded commercial enterprise, while in Britain, the public broadcasting pioneer British Broadcasting Corporation set up in the same year. During the First World War and the Second World War, radio broadcasting played a significant role in both domestic public opinion management and international diplomacy propaganda abroad.

Even in the Cold War times, this radio-dominated international communication still featured in propaganda respective ideologies. The prominent example is the Voice of America, which ran a global network to indoctrinate "American dream" to its international audience. Radio also played an important role in the ideological confrontation between the east and the west. Broadcasts could penetrate the "Iron Curtain" and directly address the "enemy", which was extremely important in the early days of the Cold War. Western broadcasting offered an alternative channel for the flow of new information and ideas. Around a one third of

Soviet urban adults and about half of East European adults were regular listeners of Western broadcasts at the time.

Shortwave transmission sites, known as "number stations" were used by both the United States and Soviet governments to send propaganda to foreign countries. They were also a secure means of sending coded messages to intelligence officers operating in other countries. As long as an agent had the station, the air time, and encryption code, he could receive a one-time message that only he could understand.[13]

Not only Western countries have been impacted by communication through the use of radio broadcasting. An example of this is the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. In April 1994, a plane carrying the presidents of Rwanda and neighboring Burundi crashed under mysterious circumstances. This sparked a massing killing spree that took place over the next three months and left over a million Rwandans dead.[14] The Rwandan media have been accused of inciting hatred that led to violence by using an ethical framework to report a political struggle, as well as spreading fear, rumors, and panic. They also incited ordinary citizens to take part in the massacres. Through its broadcasts, popular radio station RTLM attracted unemployed youth and Interhahamwe militia, a far-right organization.

Demanding a new communication order

Since the cold war officially ended in 1990, the intense relations of super powers halted with the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the emergence of the Third World countries, the unequally developed communication order can no longer exist. The Third World called for ceasing their marginalized communication status. Especially when international communications stepped into the information age, 'the convergence of telecommunication and computing and the ability to move all type of data – pictures, words, sounds – via the Internet have revolutionized international information exchange.'The New World Information and Communication Order debate changed the trajectory of international communication. This was a series of debates that happened in the 1980s about information flow across the world.

Considerations for international communication

When communicating internationally it is important to take culture into consideration. Though English has become the language of business, many businesses fail to recognize that the language used does not determine how business is conducted. Therefore, it is important to understand that intercultural and international communication are interchangeable. Effective communication between international business partners is critical for global success, and underlying national and organizational cultural differences in international business- related relationships can create hurdles to effective communication, which can hinder performance. The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) was one of the major shift in the history of international communication.

As a tourist it may be acceptable to maintain the cultural norms from a country of origin when visiting, though attempting to adapt would be appreciated. However, when conducting business it is important to recognize cultural differences, especially when communicating.[18] At the turn of the century there was a large amount of research based on the needs of those that travel abroad in order to commercialize products or services. The list of researchers includes Hofstede, 1991; Storti, 1994; Ansari & Jackson, 1995; Cushner & Brislin, 1996; Adler, 1997; Mead, 1998; and Marx, 1999. From those studies Gibson's volume becomes an important source of information for business professionals interested in succeeding internationally.[19] As explained by Douglas Storey, there was a change in style and strategy of American diplomacy since 1979 after the first addition of Glen Fisher's book appeared.

Despite the reason for international communication it is important to understand that international communication is not limited to the language spoken during communication.

There are two broadly conceived approaches to the creation of international communications regulations. The first would be internationalizing a minimum standard by agreement among the parties. The second is to allow the parties to denote exceptions for specific points about which they may be unable to reach agreement. Though the second approach falls short of uniformity it permits higher standards by allowing some parties to opt out.

Scope and approaches of international communication

International communication is widely spread and multilayered in contemporary society, however it is not considered as a separate academic discipline beause of its overlapping with other subjects.[22] International communication is 'a topic field rather than a discipline field' and international communication studies is a mode of 'organizing inquiry'.

John D. H. Downing proposed ten categories within which international communication should be conducted

 

1.      theories of international communication

2.      core international communication processes

3.      global media firms

4.      global media policies

5.      Global news flows

6.      world cinema

7.      development communication

8.      the Internet

9.      intellectual property law

10.   non-hegemonic communication flows

 

 

 

 

International Information Flow

1.     Historical Dimension of International Information Flow

The historical dimension of international information flow refers to the evolution and patterns of message exchange across national boundaries throughout history. This encompasses the development of communication technologies, the establishment of international communication policies, and the socio-political implications of information exchange between countries.

Historically, international information flow has been influenced by factors such as:

 

·        Technological advancements: The invention of the printing press, telegraph, radio, television, and the internet have each revolutionized the way information is disseminated globally.

·        Political climate: Governments have used information as a tool for diplomacy, propaganda, and to assert cultural influence.

·        Economic interests: Control over information flow has been a means to maintain economic dominance, particularly by developed nations.

·        Cultural exchange: The spread of information has facilitated the exchange of cultural values and norms across different societies.

In the early 1980s, UNESCO commissioned a study that synthesized existing research on all aspects of international information flow, reflecting the situation at the beginning of that decade¹. This study likely addressed the quantitative and qualitative aspects of information flow, including the political and economic dimensions that continue to shape it.

The concept of information imperialism has also been discussed, where developed countries exert considerable control over information flows, impacting the global distribution of knowledge and power.

 

The international flow of information has a rich history, constantly evolving alongside the technologies that enable it. Here's a glimpse into some key eras:

 

Ancient World and Early Trade Routes:

·        Information traveled slowly but surely through trade routes. Merchants carried news, stories, and knowledge along the Silk Road, spice routes, and maritime trade routes.

·        Empires like Rome used messengers and relays to communicate with far-flung territories.

 

The Printing Press and Rise of Newspapers (15th-19th Century):

 

·        The invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized information flow. Ideas and knowledge could be disseminated much faster and wider.

·        Newspapers emerged, allowing for a broader range of information to be shared within and across countries.

Telegraph and Early Broadcasting (19th-20th Century):

 

·        The telegraph in the 19th century drastically increased the speed of communication, enabling real-time news transmission.

·        Early radio broadcasts in the 20th century allowed information to be disseminated to mass audiences across borders, shaping public opinion and cultural exchange.

 

Cold War and Ideological Battles (20th Century):

 

·        The Cold War era saw a strong focus on international information flow, with both the US and USSR using media and propaganda to influence global opinion.

·        The concept of the "free flow of information" became a point of contention, with concerns about cultural imperialism and dominance by Western media.

 

Rise of Satellite Communication and the Information Age (Late 20th-21st Century):

 

·        Satellite communication further accelerated information flow, enabling global news coverage and the rise of international news networks.

·        The internet revolutionized information sharing, creating an unprecedented level of global interconnectedness. However, issues of access, control, and digital divides emerged.

 

 

2.     Concept of Imbalance in Information Flow : MacBride Commission Report

The MacBride Commission Report, formally known as “Many Voices, One World”, was published in 1980 and addressed the imbalance in information flow at a global level. The report highlighted the disparity between developed and developing countries in terms of access to and dissemination of information. It emphasized the need for a more equitable exchange of media and communication resources to foster a balanced flow of information.

The concept of imbalance discussed in the report refers to the dominance of Western media and the one-way flow of information from developed to developing countries, which often resulted in a form of cultural imperialism. The report advocated for a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO), aiming to democratize communication and strengthen national media to avoid dependence on external sources.

 

The concept of imbalance in information flow was a central concern addressed by the 1980 MacBride Commission Report, also known as "Many Voices, One World." Here's a breakdown of how the report tackled this issue:

 

The Problem of Imbalance:

 

·        The report argued that the prevailing idea of a "free flow of information" wasn't balanced. It favored developed nations who controlled most of the communication infrastructure and news agencies.

·        This resulted in a one-way flow of information, with developing countries under- represented and often portrayed through a biased lens.

·        The report highlighted economic factors as a key driver of imbalance. Developing countries lacked resources and technology to compete, creating dependence on Western media narratives.

 

Impacts of the Imbalance:

 

·        The MacBride Commission pointed out how this imbalance:

o    Limited developing countries' ability to tell their own stories and shape global narratives.

o    Perpetuated cultural imperialism and dominance of Western viewpoints.

o    Hindered development by limiting access to diverse information and knowledge.

 

The Report's Recommendations:

 

·        To address the imbalance, the report advocated for a "free and balanced flow of information." This included:

o    Strengthening communication infrastructures in developing countries.

o    Promoting local media and content creation.

o    Fostering international cooperation and knowledge sharing.

o    Establishing a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) that ensured a more equitable information landscape.

 

Criticisms and Legacy:

 

·        The report faced criticism from Western nations who saw it as an attack on press freedom.

·        The NWICO concept wasn't fully realized, but the report's focus on information imbalances remains relevant in today's digital world.

·        The continued dominance of Western media conglomerates and the rise of tech giants raise new concerns about information control and access.

 

The MacBride Commission Report serves as a historical reference point in discussions about fairness and equity in the global flow of information. It highlights the need for a more balanced information ecosystem where diverse voices can be heard.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.     Contemporary Trends in Media and International Relations : Terrorism, Human Rights The contemporary trends in media and international relations, especially concerning terrorism and the Human Rights Commission, are multifaceted and complex. The media plays a crucial role in

shaping public perception and policy regarding terrorism, while international relations are significantly impacted by the global discourse on human rights and counter-terrorism efforts.

Terrorism has a profound impact on human rights, affecting the right to life, liberty, and security. It also raises challenges related to the prohibition against torture, the rights of victims, and the principles of legality and non-discrimination . The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights emphasizes that counter-terrorism measures and the promotion of human rights are not conflicting goals but are complementary and mutually reinforcing

Human Rights Commissions globally are tasked with ensuring that counter-terrorism strategies respect and protect human rights. This includes safeguarding civil, cultural, economic, political, and social rights, as well as the right to development, which are universal, interdependent, and indivisible

The media, on the other hand, can influence these issues by reporting on acts of terrorism and the responses by states and international bodies. The media’s portrayal of these events can affect public opinion and policy-making, highlighting the need for responsible journalism that considers the impact on human rights and international relations.

In-depth analyses of the relationship between global terrorism and human rights provide insights for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners to develop effective strategies for mitigating the negative effects of terrorism and promoting justice, dignity, and equality in today’s world .

Emerging trends, such as the rise of violent extremism conducive to terrorism, are being addressed through a human rights-based approach, emphasizing the importance of respecting human rights while combating terrorism .

Discussions on new and emerging terrorist threats, including those based on xenophobia, Islamophobia, and racism, and the use of digital technologies for terrorist purposes, are also shaping the contemporary landscape of international relations and media coverage .

Understanding these trends is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies that balance security concerns with the protection of human rights, ensuring that the fight against terrorism does not compromise the values it seeks to protect.

 

The contemporary media landscape plays a crucial role in shaping international relations, particularly regarding terrorism and human rights. Here's a look at some trends:

1.  Rise of Social Media and Citizen Journalism:

 

·        Social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook have become primary sources of information, especially during crises and conflicts.

·        Terrorist groups use social media for propaganda, recruitment, and spreading fear.

·        Citizen journalists can document human rights abuses and raise awareness, bypassing traditional media gatekeepers.

 

2.  The Challenge of "Fake News" and Disinformation:

 

·        The ease of sharing information online has also led to the spread of misinformation and "fake news." This can distort public understanding of human rights situations and terrorist activities.

·        Governments and social media platforms are grappling with how to curb misinformation without infringing on free speech.

 

3.  Media's Role in Human Rights Advocacy:

 

·        Investigative journalism can expose human rights violations and hold perpetrators accountable.

·        Social media campaigns can raise awareness and build pressure for change on human rights issues.

·        However, journalists can face threats and intimidation in conflict zones or countries with poor press freedom.

 

4.  Media's Role in Counter-Terrorism:

 

·        Media coverage of terrorist attacks can give terrorists the notoriety they seek, potentially inspiring copycat attacks.

·        There's a debate about how much media coverage to give terrorism and the potential for glorifying violence.

·        Media can also play a role in promoting tolerance and countering extremist narratives.

 

5.  International Cooperation and Regulation:

·        There are growing efforts for international cooperation among governments and media organizations to combat online terrorism and disinformation.

·        Debates exist about the balance between national security and freedom of expression when regulating online content.

 

4.     Globalization of News and Cultural Products

Globalization of news and cultural products refers to the process by which information, ideas, and cultural expressions are disseminated and shared globally, transcending geographical, political, and cultural boundaries. This phenomenon is largely driven by advancements in technology, particularly in communication and media, which facilitate the rapid exchange and consumption of news and cultural content across the world.

 

Cultural globalization is characterized by the diffusion of commodities and ideas, leading to a standardization of cultural expressions. However, it doesn’t result in a uniform world culture; instead, it creates global subcultures among individuals who share similar values, aspirations, or lifestyles, regardless of their physical location.

 

Media globalization, on the other hand, has revolutionized the way information and culture are disseminated, enabled by digital platforms and the rise of the internet. It connects individuals and societies in unprecedented ways, allowing for an instant exchange of news and cultural products.

 

The globalization of cultural products also includes the international flow of cultural goods and services, which has become a significant economic driver in the digital age. It encompasses the export and import of cultural expressions through various forms of media, contributing to the global cultural economy.

 

Globalization of news and cultural products refers to the widespread movement of information and creative content across geographical and cultural borders. It's driven by advancements in technology and communication, making it easier and faster to share news stories, movies, music, fashion, and more on a global scale.

 

Effects of Globalization:

·        Increased exposure: People around the world are exposed to a wider variety of news sources, entertainment options, and cultural influences. This can foster understanding and appreciation of different cultures.

·        Homogenization vs. Heterogenization: There's a debate about whether globalization leads to a homogenization of cultures, with dominant Western cultures taking over. However, it can also lead to heterogenization, where local cultures are reinterpreted and blended with global influences to create something new.

 

Key Players:

 

·        Multinational media corporations: These companies, like major news outlets and Hollywood studios, have the resources to distribute their content globally.

·        Digital technologies: The internet, social media, and streaming services have revolutionized how news and cultural products are shared.

 

Criticisms of Globalization:

 

·        Cultural imperialism: Some argue that globalization allows powerful Western nations to impose their cultural values on others.

·        Loss of local culture: Local cultural industries may struggle to compete with global giants, leading to a decline in diverse cultural expression.

 

Examples of Globalization:

 

·        International news channels: Broadcast news outlets like BBC World News and CNN International provide global audiences with news coverage from around the world.

·        Hollywood movies: American films are hugely popular worldwide, influencing fashion trends, music tastes, and storytelling styles.

·        Korean Wave (Hallyu): South Korean pop culture, including K-pop music and Korean dramas, has gained a massive global following.

·        Social media trends: Dance challenges, viral memes, and online trends can spread rapidly across cultures through social media platforms like TikTok.

Overall, the globalization of news and cultural products is a complex phenomenon with both positive and negative aspects. It's important to be aware of the different perspectives and the potential impact on cultures around the world.

5.     India and UNO

As a founding member of the United Nations (UN), India plays a significant role in supporting the UN’s purposes and principles. Let’s delve into India’s engagement with the UN:

1.     Multilateral Commitment:

o    India’s deepening engagement with the UN is rooted in its steadfast commitment to multilateralism and dialogue. These are considered key for achieving shared goals and addressing global challenges.

o    The UN remains the most efficacious means for tackling a wide range of issues, including sustainable development, poverty eradication, environment, climate change, peace building, peacekeeping, terrorism, disarmament, human rights, migration, and health crises.

o    Additionally,  the  UN  plays  a  crucial  role  in  emerging  areas  such as cybersecurity, space, and frontier technologies like Artificial Intelligence.

2.     Historical Perspective:

o    India was among the select nations that signed the Declaration by United Nations in 1942 and participated in the historic UN Conference of International Organization in 1945.

o    During the UN’s tumultuous years of struggle against colonialism and apartheid, India stood at the forefront.

o    India co-sponsored the landmark 1960 Declaration on UN on Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, emphasizing the need to unconditionally end colonialism.

o    India played a leading role in the formation of a Sub-Committee against Apartheid and was among the earliest signatories of the Convention on Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination¹.

3.     Advocacy for Developing Countries:

o    India’s status as a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the Group of 77 solidified its position as an advocate for the concerns and aspirations of developing countries.

o    It actively worked toward creating a more equitable international economic and political order.

4.     Peacekeeping Contributions:

o    India has a long and distinguished history of service in UN peacekeeping. To date, more than 244,500 Indians have served in 49 of the 71 UN peacekeeping missions established worldwide since 1948.

 

India has a long and significant relationship with the United Nations (UNO) since its founding. Here's a breakdown of India's role in the UNO:

 

Historical Partnership:

 

·        Founding Member: India was among the first countries to sign the UN Charter in 1945, making it a founding member of the organization.

·        Decolonization Advocate: India played a key role in advocating for decolonization during the UN's early years. It co-sponsored the 1960 Declaration granting independence to colonial countries.

·        Champion of Developing Nations: India has been a prominent voice for developing countries within the UN, advocating for a more equitable international order.

Active Participation:

 

·        Non-Permanent Security Council Member: India has served a record eight terms (including the most recent 2021-2022 term) as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. This reflects India's desire to play a leading role in global security issues.

·        Peacekeeping Contributions: India is the highest troop contributor to UN peacekeeping missions, demonstrating its commitment to maintaining international peace. Over 253,000 Indian personnel have participated in peacekeeping efforts worldwide.

·        Global Issues Focus: India actively participates in addressing global challenges through various UN agencies and programs related to health, education, climate change, and sustainable development.

 

Current Aspirations:

 

·        Permanent Security Council Seat: India, along with other G4 nations, aspires to become a permanent member of the UN Security Council. This reflects India's growing global influence and its desire for a greater say in international decision-making.

 

Challenges and Considerations:

 

·        UN Reform: India advocates for reforming the UN Security Council to reflect the realities of the 21st century, including the inclusion of more developing countries.

·        Balancing Interests: As India's global stature rises, it faces the challenge of balancing its own strategic interests with its commitments to the UN principles of multilateralism and cooperation.

 

Overall, India's relationship with the UNO is one of active participation and leadership. It remains a strong supporter of the UN's goals and continues to play a crucial role in global affairs through the organization.