Literature Review
A literature review is
} the
revisiting of available documents (both published and unpublished) on a
research topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence in order to
identify research gaps.
} It
stresses out methodological inconsistencies in the previous research.
} It
also gives justification as well as background to our new research.
Purpose of Literature Review
•
It provides a historical background for your
research;
•
It gives an overview of the current context in
which your research is situated, by referring to contemporary debates, issues
and questions in the field;
•
It includes a discussion on relevant theories
and concepts which underpin your research;
•
It introduces relevant terminology and provides
definitions to clarify how terms are being used in the context of your own
work;
•
It describes related research in the field and
shows how your research work extends or challenges this or addresses gap in the
work in the field;
•
It provides supporting evidence for a cause, for
which you are going to undertake a new research.
Source of information
} Books
(Text Books-Specialized Books-Reference Books)
} Journal
Articles
} Published
Literature Review of a Subject / Field (ICSSR Series)
} Grey
Literature (Reports, Theses, Conference Proceedings, Working Papers, media
reports, letters and personal diaries-(Not formally published by a publisher
)
Process of Reviewing Literature (Searching,
Reading, Writing)
} Locating
previous study on the issue
} Exploring
ideas around the topic
} Developing
Categories and theme for reading
} Identification
of Theories, Concepts and Methodology.
} Developing
categories of themes for writing.
} Specifying
heading and sub headings for review.
} Writing
and revisiting drafts
} Developing
own argument
} Justifying
research problem
} Formulating
research questions
} Writing
review
Ordering of Reviews
•Panchayatiraj in Tribal Areas of Madhya
Pradesh
•Panchayatiraj in Madhya Pradesh
•Panchayatiraj in India
After reviewing….
} Mention
the research gap and justification of your work (rationale of the study).
} Specify
objectives of your study.
} Specify
research questions
} Justify
your methodology to deal with the objectives.
} Chalk
out method and data collection strategy for the study.
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Sampling technique
Population or sample
¡ A
population is any well-defined set of units of analysis: people, countries,
events, years
¡ A
sample, by contrast, is any subset of units collected in some manner from the
population
¡ Due
to considerations of time, money and other costs, data collection is done from
a sample and not entire population
¡ Information
based on sample is less accurate or more subject to error than that based on
entire poulation
The Basics of Sampling
¡ Studies
of public opinion and voting behavior always rely on sampling
¡ Empirical
findings that emerge from a sample apply to only that population: avoid
generalizations
¡ Data
are obtained according to certain well-established rules
¡ A
sample of blood is a subset of all the blood in human body/ few grains of rice
from the entire vessel of cooked rice
Types of Samples
¡ Two
basic types of samples: probability and nonprobability sample
¡ Probability
sample is one in which each element is in the total population has a known
probability of being included in the sample
¡ Nonprobability sample is one in which each element in the
population has an unknown probability of being included in the sample
¡ Probability
samples are preferred to nonprobability samples
Types of Probability Samples
¡ Major
types of probability samples:
- Simple random samples
- Systematic samples
- Stratified samples
- Cluster samples
- Telephone samples
Simple Random Samples (SRS)
¡ Each
element has an equal chance of being sampled
¡ List
of all the elements in the population must be available
¡ Proper
method for selecting those elements
¡ Two
common methods of selecting a sample: generate a random numbers table manually
or by computer;
¡ ‘by
the lot’ method- all elements tossed in a hat and elements are randomly drawn
till the desired sample is reached
Systematic Samples (SS)
¡ Elements
are selected from a list at predetermined numbers in a systematic manner
¡ This
number is called the sampling interval which is decided after a random start
¡ SS
is very useful when sampling from a long list of population elements
¡ Bias
occurs in SS if population element are ranked according to a characteristic or
a pattern
Stratified Samples
¡ Elements
sharing one or more characteristics are grouped and elements are selected from
each group in proportion to the group’s representation in the total population
¡ Sampling
may be done either by simple randomization or by systematic sampling from each
stratum
¡ Stratified
sample may be proportionate or disproportionate
¡ Proportionate
sampling is in proportion to the size of the population
¡ Sampling
fraction: size of the desired sample divided by the size of the population
¡ Disproportionate
sample is taken when a stratum is either
underrepresented or overrepresented
Cluster Samples (CS)
¡ CS
is used when there is no list of population element
¡ Sampling
frame is divided into clusters of elements and listed as sampling units
¡ Sampling
is done from these sampling units
¡ There
may be multi-stage clustering of sample units
¡ A
drawback of CS is greater imprecision due to sampling error ( discrepancy
between an observed and a true value)
Nonprobability samples (NS)
¡ In
NS each element in the population has an unknown probability of being selected
¡ NS
may be preferred over PS when latter is too expensive or population is
ill-defined
¡ NS
may be preferred when unusual cases may be more informative than representative
ones
¡ NS
may be of different types: purposive, convenience, quota, snowball
¡ Purposive
sample: the goal is to study a diverse and usually a limited number of
observations
¡ Convenience
sample: easy for researcher to select; good for exploratory research
¡ Quota
sample: elements are sampled proportionately in a purposive and convenient way
¡ Snowball
sample: respondents are used to identify other persons for inclusion in the
sample; useful to select difficult-to-locate population
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
research problems
a research problem is one which requires a
researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem.
any question that you want answered and any
assumption or assertion that you want to
challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for your study.
According to Powers, Meenaghan and
T woomey (1985:38), ‘Potential
research questions may occur to us on a regular basis, but the process of formulating them in a meaningful way is
not at all an easy task. ‘First identifying and then specifying a research problem might seem like research
tasks that ought to be easy and quickly
accomplished. However, such is
often not the case’ (Y egidis & W
einback 1991:35).
Sources
of research problems
people;
problems;
programmes;
phenomena
Considerations in
selecting a research problem
Interest
Magnitude
Measurement of concepts
Level of expertise
Relevance
Availability of data
Ethical issues
Steps in formulating
a research problem
Step 1 Identify a
broad field or subject area of interest to you
Step 2 Dissect the broad area into subareas
Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you
Step 4 Raise
research questions.
Step 5 Formulate objectives
Step 6 Assess
your objectives
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